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Conium

Conium

Conium is a genus of 2-3 species of perennial herbaceous plants in the family Apiaceae. The most familiar species is Conium maculatum (also known as Poison Hemlock), the most common of several species of hemlock noted for their toxicity. It is a biennial herb which grows up to about 10 feet or 3 meters tall, has a smooth (sometimes purple) spotted stem and finely divided lacy leaves. The new leaves and root, when crushed emit a rank, unpleasant odour often compared to mice or parsnips. The flowers are small, white and clustered in the umbrella shape so familiar to this family. The plant is often mistaken for fennel, parsley or wild carrot although the characteristic stem hairs of the wild carrots are missing. The Conium root is fleshy, white and often unbranched and can be mistaken for parsnip. Conium contains the alkaloids Coniine, N-methylconiine, conhydrine, pseudoconhydrine and g-coniceïne. The most important and toxic of these is Coniine. Coniine is a neurotoxin, which disrupts the workings of the central nervous system and is toxic to all classes of livestock and humans. A lethal dose for a horse is 4 to 5 pounds (1.8 to 2.2 kg) of leaves, cattle; 1 to 2 pounds (0.45 to 0.9 kg), and sheep; half pound (0.2 kg) or less. The whole plant is toxic, but especially the root and seeds. Conium maculatum is a native of Europe and Asia, but has been introduced and naturalised in many other areas, including much of North America and Australia. Poison hemlock is often found on poorly drained soils, particularly near streams, ditches, and other surface water. A useful trick to determine whether a plant is poison hemlock rather than fennel, which it resembles, is to crush some leaves and smell the result. Fennel smells like anise or licorice, whereas the smell of poison hemlock is often described as mouse-like or musty. The plant should be discarded if there is any doubt. Conium is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Silver-ground Carpet.
Socrates
The most famous victim of hemlock poisoning is probably Socrates. After being condemned to death for impiety in 399 BC, Socrates was given a potent solution of the hemlock plant. Plato described Socrates' death in Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Phaedo.
He walked about and, when he said his legs were heavy, lay down on his back, for such was the advice of the attendant. The man who had administered the poison laid his hands on him and after a while examined his feet and legs, then pinched his foot hard and asked if he felt it. He said "No"; then after that, his thighs; and passing upwards in this way he showed us that he was growing cold and rigid. And again he touched him and said that when it reached his heart, he would be gone. ... To this question he made no reply, but after a little while he moved; the attendant uncovered him; his eyes were fixed. -- [http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plat.+Phaedo+117e Plato, Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Phaedo]
Sometimes the characteristic red spots found on the stem and branches is referred to as "the blood of Socrates" in reference to his death.
Medicinal uses
Poison hemlock has been used as a sedative and for its antispasmodic properties. It was also used by Greek and Arab physicians for a variety of problems such as arthritis. However, it wasn't always effective as the difference between a therapeutic and a toxic amount is very slight. Overdoses can produce paralysis and loss of speech being followed by depression of the respiratory function and then death.
External links

- [http://www.nd.edu/~plato/bloch.htm Journal of the International Plato Society], "Hemlock Poisoning and the Death of Socrates: Did Plato Tell the Truth?" Category:Apiaceae Category:Poisonous plants

Perennial
A perennial plant or perennial (Latin per, "through", annus, "year") is a plant that lives for more than two years. Herbaceous perennials are plants that do not form woody tissue and the term perennial more commonly describes these plants, since woody plants (i.e., trees and shrubs) are always perennials. Perennials that flower and fruit only once and then die are termed monocarpic (semelparous). However, most perennials are polycarpic, flowering over many seasons in their lifetime. In warmer and more clement climates, perennials grow continuously. In seasonal climates, their growth is limited to the growing season. For example, in temperate regions a perennial plant may grow and bloom during the warm part of the year, with the foliage dying back in the winter. These plants are deciduous perennials. Regrowth is from existing stem tissue. In many parts of the world, seasonality is expressed as wet and dry periods rather than warm and cold periods. In some species, perennials retain their foliage all year round; these are evergreen perennials. Examples of evergreen perennials include Begonia and banana. Examples of deciduous perennials include Goldenrod and mint. Perennial plants dominate most natural ecosystems. For example, grasses and most forbs on the prairie are perennials. Perennial plants are usually better competitors than annual plants, especially under stable, resource-poor conditions. This is due to the development of larger root systems which can access water and soil nutrients deeper in the soil and to earlier emergence in the spring. Perennials can be grouped by hardiness. For example, varieties that flourish in Missouri may not survive a Minnesota winter. In the United States, the Department of Agriculture publishes a hardiness map, using average minimum temperature ranges to form a zone numbering system. The higher the zone number, the less hardy the plant. For example, a zone 8 perennial, suited to a minimum temperature range of 10 to 20 degrees F, will not survive a normal zone 4 winter, which has a minimum temperature range of -30 to -20 degrees F.
See also

- Annual plant
- Biennial plant
External link

- [http://www.orst.edu/extension/mg/botany/cycles.html Plant life cycles]
- [http://www.usna.usda.gov/Hardzone/ushzmap.html USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map] Category:Plants Category:Botany Category: gardening Category: plant morphology ja:多年生植物

Plant

- Land plants (embryophytes)
- Non-vascular plants (bryophytes)
- Marchantiophyta - liverworts
- Anthocerotophyta - hornworts
- Bryophyta - mosses
- Vascular plants (tracheophytes)
- Lycopodiophyta - clubmosses
- Equisetophyta - horsetails
- Pteridophyta - "true" ferns
- Psilotophyta - whisk ferns
- Ophioglossophyta - adderstongues
- Seed plants (spermatophytes)
- †Pteridospermatophyta - seed ferns
- Pinophyta - conifers
- Cycadophyta - cycads
- Ginkgophyta - ginkgo
- Gnetophyta - gnetae
- Magnoliophyta - flowering plants Magnoliophyta Plants are a major group of living things (about 300,000 species), including familiar organisms such as trees, flowers, herbs, and ferns. Aristotle divided all living things between plants, which generally do not move or have sensory organs, and animals. In Linnaeus' system, these became the Kingdoms Vegetabilia (later Plantae) and Animalia. Since then, it has become clear that the Plantae as originally defined included several unrelated groups, and the fungi and several groups of algae were removed to new kingdoms. However, these are still often considered plants in many contexts. Indeed, any attempt to match "plant" with a single taxon is doomed to fail, because plant is a vaguely defined concept unrelated to the presumed phylogenic concepts on which modern taxonomy is based.

Embryophytes

:See main article at Embryophytes Most familiar are the multicellular land plants, called embryophytes. They include the vascular plants, plants with full systems of leaves, stems, and roots. They also include a few of their close relatives, often called bryophytes, of which mosses and liverworts are the most common. All of these plants have eukaryotic cells with cell walls composed of cellulose, and most obtain their energy through photosynthesis, using light and carbon dioxide to synthesize food. About three hundred plant species do not photosynthesize but are parasites on other species of photosynthetic plants. Plants are distinguished from green algae, from which they evolved, by having specialized reproductive organs protected by non-reproductive tissues. Bryophytes first appeared during the early Palaeozoic. They can only survive where moisture is available for significant periods, although some species are desiccation tolerant. Most species of bryophyte remain small throughout their life-cycle. This involves an alternation between two generations: a haploid stage, called the gametophyte, and a diploid stage, called the sporophyte. The sporophyte is short-lived and remains dependent on its parent gametophyte. Vascular plants first appeared during the Silurian period, and by the Devonian had diversified and spread into many different land environments. They have a number of adaptations that allowed them to overcome the limitations of the bryophytes. These include a cuticle resistant to desiccation, and vascular tissues which transport water throughout the organism. In most the sporophyte acts as a separate individual, while the gametophyte remains small. Devonians (Pteridophyta) more closely allied to seed plants than they are to clubmosses (Lycopodiophyta)]] The first primitive seed plants, Pteridosperms (seed ferns) and Cordaites, both groups now extinct, appeared in the late Devonian and diversified through the Carboniferous, with further evolution through the Permian and Triassic periods. In these the gametophyte stage is completely reduced, and the sporophyte begins life inside an enclosure called a seed, which develops while on the parent plant, and with fertilisation by means of pollen grains. Whereas other vascular plants, such as ferns, reproduce by means of spores and so need moisture to develop, some seed plants can survive and reproduce in extremely arid conditions. Early seed plants are referred to as gymnosperms (naked seeds), as the seed embryo is not enclosed in a protective structure at pollination, with the pollen landing directly on the embryo. Four surviving groups remain widespread now, particularly the conifers, which are dominant trees in several biomes. The angiosperms, comprising the flowering plants, were the last major group of plants to appear, emerging from within the gymnosperms during the Jurassic and diversifying rapidly during the Cretaceous. These differ in that the seed embryo is enclosed, so the pollen has to grow a tube to penetrate the protective seed coat; they are the predominant group of flora in most biomes today.

Algae and Fungi

The algae comprise several different groups of organisms that produce energy through photosynthesis. However, they are not classified within the kingdom plantae but in the kingdom protista instead. The most conspicuous are the seaweeds, multicellular algae that often closely resemble terrestrial plants, but as stated above are not plants, found among the green, red, and brown algae. These and other algal groups also include various single-celled creatures and forms that are simple collections of cells, without differentiated tissues. Many can move about, and some have even lost their ability to photosynthesize; when first discovered, these were considered as both plants and animals. Now they are considered neither, but protists. The embryophytes developed from green algae; the two are collectively referred to as the green plants or Viridiplantae. The kingdom Plantae is now usually taken to mean this monophyletic group, as shown above. With a few exceptions among the green algae, all such forms have cell walls containing cellulose and chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and b, and store food in the form of starch. They undergo closed mitosis without centrioles, and typically have mitochondria with flat cristae. The chloroplasts of green plants are surrounded by two membranes, suggesting they originated directly from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. The same is true of the red algae, and the two groups are generally believed to have a common origin. In contrast, most other algae have chloroplasts with three or four membranes. They are not in general close relatives of the green plants, acquiring chloroplasts separately from ingested or symbiotic green and red algae. Unlike embryophytes and algae, fungi are not photosynthetic, but are saprophytes: they obtain their food by breaking down and absorbing surrounding materials. Most fungi are formed by microscopic tubes called hyphae, which may or may not be divided into cells but contain eukaryotic nuclei. Fruiting bodies, of which mushrooms are the most familiar, are actually only the reproductive structures of fungi. They are not related to any of the photosynthetic groups, but are close relatives of animals. Therefore, fungus has a kingdom of its own.

Importance

The photosynthesis and carbon fixation conducted by land plants and algae are the ultimate source of energy and organic material in nearly all habitats. These processes also radically changed the composition of the Earth's atmosphere, which as a result contains a large proportion of oxygen. Animals and most other organisms are aerobic, relying on oxygen; those that do not are confined to relatively few, anaerobic environments. Much of human nutrition depends on cereals. Other plants that are eaten include fruits, vegetables, herbs, and spices. Some vascular plants, referred to as trees and shrubs, produce woody stems and are an important source of building material. A number of plants are used decoratively, including a variety of flowers.

Growth

It is a common misconception that most of the solid material in a plant is taken from the soil, when in fact almost all of it is actually taken from the air. Through a process known as photosynthesis, plants use the energy in sunlight to convert carbon dioxide from the air into simple sugars. These sugars are then used as building blocks and form the main structural component of the plant. Plants rely on soil primarily for water (in quantitative terms), but also obtain nitrogen, phosphorus and other crucial nutrients. phosphorus Simple plants like algae may have short life spans as individuals, but their populations are commonly seasonal. Other plants may be organized according to their seasonal growth pattern:
- Annual: live and reproduce within one growing season.
- Biennial: live for two growing seasons; usually reproduce in second year.
- Perennial: live for many growing seasons; continue to reproduce once mature. Among the vascular plants, perennials include both evergreens that keep their leaves the entire year, and deciduous plants which lose their leaves for some part. In temperate and boreal climates, they generally lose their leaves during the winter; many tropical plants lose their leaves during the dry season. The growth rate of plants is extremely variable. Some mosses grow less than 0.001 mm/h, while most trees grow 0.025-0.250 mm/h. Some climbing species, such as kudzu, which do not need to produce thick supportive tissue, may grow up to 12.5 mm/h.

Fossils

Plant fossils include roots, wood, leaves, seeds, fruit, pollen, spores, phytoliths, and amber (the fossilized resin produced by some plants). Fossil land plants are recorded in terrestrial, lacustrine, fluvial and nearshore marine sediments. Pollen, spores and algae (dinoflagellates and acritarchs) are used for dating sedimentary rock sequences. The remains of fossil plants are not as common as fossil animals, although plant fossils are locally abundant in many regions worldwide. Early fossils of these ancient plants show the individual cells within the plant tissue. The Devonian period also saw the evolution of what many believe to be the first modern tree, Archaeopteris. This fern-like tree combined a woody trunk with the fronds of a fern, but produced no seeds. Archaeopteris The Coal Measures are a major source of Palaeozoic plant fossils, with many groups of plants in existence at this time. The spoil heaps of coal mines are the best places to collect; coal itself is the remains of fossilised plants, though structural detail of the plant fossils is rarely visible in coal. In the Fossil Forest at Victoria Park in Glasgow, Scotland, the stumps of Lepidodendron trees are found in their original growth positions. The fossilized remains of conifer and angiosperm roots, stems and branches may be locally abundant in lake and inshore sedimentary rocks from the Mesozoic and Caenozoic eras. Sequoia and its allies, magnolia, oak, and palms are often found. Petrified wood is common in some parts of the world, and is most frequently found in arid or desert areas were it is more readily exposed by erosion. Petrified wood is often heavily silicified (the organic material replaced by silicon dioxide), and the impregnated tissue is often preserved in fine detail. Such specimens may be cut and polished using lapidary equipment. Fossil forests of petrified wood have been found in all continents. Fossils of seed ferns such as Glossopteris are widely distributed throughout several continents of the southern hemisphere, a fact that gave support to Alfred Wegener's early ideas regarding Continental drift theory.

Distribution

References and further reading

- Kenrick, Paul & Crane, Peter R. (1997). The Origin and Early Diversification of Land Plants: A Cladistic Study. Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 1-56098-730-8.
- Raven, Peter H., Evert, Ray F., & Eichhorn, Susan E. (2005). Biology of Plants (7th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-1007-2.
- Taylor, Thomas N. & Taylor, Edith L. (1993). The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-651589-4.

External links

- [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Green_plants&contgroup=Eukaryotes Tree of Life]
- Chaw, S.-M. et al. [http://mbe.library.arizona.edu/data/1997/1401/7chaw.pdf Molecular Phylogeny of Extant Gymnosperms and Seed Plant Evolution: Analysis of Nuclear 18s rRNA Sequences (pdf file)] Molec. Biol. Evol. 14 (1): 56-68. 1997.
- [http://florabase.calm.wa.gov.au/phylogeny/cronq88.html Interactive Cronquist classification]

Botanical and vegetation databases

- [http://www.efloras.org/index.aspx e-Floras (Flora of China, Flora of North America and others)]
- [http://plants.usda.gov/ United States of America]
- [http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/FE/fe.html Flora Europaea]
- [http://www.anbg.gov.au/cpbr/databases/ Australia]
- [http://davesgarden.com/pdb/ 'Dave's Garden' horticultural plant database]
- [http://www.chilebosque.cl Chilean plants at Chilebosque] Category:Plants Category:Plant_taxonomy zh-min-nan:Si̍t-bu̍t ko:식물 ms:Tumbuhan ja:植物 simple:Plant th:พืช

Apiaceae

See text
Ref: [http://hortiplex.gardenweb.com/plants/p1/gw3000704.html Hortiplex 2003-11-14] The Apiaceae or Umbelliferae (both names are allowed by the ICBN) are a family of usually aromatic plants with hollow stems, including parsley, carrot, and other relatives. It is a large family with about 300 genera and more than 3,000 species. The earlier name Umbelliferae derives from the inflorescence being in the form of a compound "umbel". The small flowers are radially symmetrical with 5 small sepals, 5 petals and 5 stamens. The family contains some highly toxic plants, such as hemlock, which was used to execute Socrates and also used to poison arrow tips. It also contains some highly useful plants, such as carrots, parsley, caraway, and fennel. Many plants in this family, such as wild carrot have estrogenic properties, and have been used as folk medicine for birth control. Most notable for this use is the extinct giant fennel, silphium. Notable members include:
- Anethum graveolens - Dill
- Anthriscus cerefolium - Chervil
- Angelica spp. - Angelica
- Apium graveolens - Celery
- Carum carvi - Caraway
- Centella asiatica - Gotu kola (pennywort)
- Conium maculatum - Poison hemlock
- Coriandrum sativum - Coriander
- Cuminum cyminum - Cumin
- Daucus carota - Carrot
- Eryngium spp. - Sea holly
- Foeniculum vulgare - Fennel
- Myrrhis odorata - Cicely
- Pastinaca sativa - Parsnip
- Petroselinum crispum - Parsley
- Pimpinella anisum - Anise
- Levisticum officinale - Lovage

Genera

- Aciphylla
- Actinotus
- Aegopodium
- Aethusa
- Aletes
- Ammi
- Ammoselinum
- Anethum
- Angelica
- Anthriscus
- Apiastrum
- Apium
- Arracacia
- Astrantia
- Athamantha
- Azorella
- Berula
- Bifora
- Bolax
- Bowlesia
- Bunium
- Bupleurum
- Carum
- Caucalis
- Centella
- Chaerophyllum
- Ciclospermum
- Cicuta
- Cnidium
- Coelopleurum
- Conioselinum
- Conium
- Conopodium
- Coriandrum
- Crithmum Crithmum
- Cryptotaenia
- Cuminum
- Cyclospermum
- Cymopterus
- Cynosciadium
- Daucosma
- Daucus carrot
- Dorema
- Erigenia
- Eryngium
- Eurytaenia
- Falcaria
- Ferula
- Foeniculum
- Glehnia
- Harbouria
- Heracleum
- Hydrocotyle (is now classified under Araliaceae)
- Laser
- Laserpitium
- Levisticum
- Ligusticum
- Lilaeopsis
- Limnosciadium
- Lomatium
- Meum
- Monizia
- Musineon
- Myrrhis
- Neoparrya
- Oenanthe
- Oreomyrrhis
- Oreonana
- Oreoxis
- Orogenia
- Osmorhiza
- Oxypolis
- Pastinaca
- Perideridia
- Petroselinum
- Peucedanum
- Pimpinella
- Pleurospermum
- Podistera
- Polytaenia
- Prangos
- Pseudocymopterus
- Pteryxia
- Ptilimnium
- Sanicula
- Scandix
- Selinum
- Seseli
- Shoshonea
- Silaum
- Sison
- Sium
- Smyrnium
- Spermolepis
- Sphenosciadium
- Sympholoma
- Synelcosciadium
- Taenidia
- Tauschia
- Thapsia
- Thaspium
- Tilingia
- Tordylium
- Torilis
- Trachymene
- Trachyspermum
- Trepocarpus
- Turgenia
- Yabea
- Zizia Category:Plant families
- ja:セリ科

Hemlock

Several poisonous plants in the Parsley family, Apiaceae (formerly Umbelliferae) are called hemlock:
- Poison hemlock is a common European plant, Conium maculatum; it contains the alkaloid Coniine.
- Water hemlock was the state poison of ancient Greece.
- Water dropwort is Oenanthe crocota. Several other related but edible species are similar in appearance to the above hemlocks, including parsnip and carrot. It is therefore essential that one knows what one is picking, or the results could very well be deadly. ----
- Quite different from these are the coniferous trees in the genus Tsuga, family Pinaceae. These are not toxic, being called 'hemlock' through a supposed (but not very real!) similarity in the scent of the foliage to that of Conium maculatum. ----
- Hemlock is occasionally used as a place name (generally in the US because of the tree). see:
- Hemlock, Michigan
- Hemlock, Ohio ----

Parsnip

The parsnip is a root vegetable related to the carrot, which it resembles, although it has a paler color and a stronger flavor. Like carrots, parsnips are native to Eurasia and have been eaten since ancient times. Indeed, until the potato arrived from the New World, its place in dishes was occupied by the parsnip. Parsnips can be boiled, roasted or used in stews, soups and casseroles.

Cultivation

Parsnips are not grown in warm climates, since frost is necessary to develop their flavor. The parsnip is a favorite with gardeners in areas with short growing seasons. Sandy, loamy soil is preferred; silty, clay, and rocky soils are unsuitable as they produce short forked roots. Seeds can be planted in early spring, as soon as the ground can be worked. February is the traditional month for sowing (in the Northern hemisphere), although it is better to wait until March when the ground has warmed. Harvesting can begin in late fall, after the first frost, and continued through winter, until the ground freezes over. More than almost any other vegetable seed, parsnip seed significantly deteriorates in viability if stored for long, so it is advisable to use fresh seed each year. In the United States, most states have wild parsnip on their list of noxious weeds or invasive species. Parsnip is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Common Swift, Garden Dart and Ghost Moth.

Danger

When picking wild vegetables, poison hemlock (Conium maculatum) can easily be mistaken for parsnip, with deadly results.

External links

- [http://dmoz.org/Home/Cooking/Fruits_and_Vegetables/Parsnips/ Recipes with parsnips]

References

- Dr D.G.Hessayon (2003)"The Vegetable & Herb Expert". Expert Books. ISBN 0-903-50546-0 Category:Root vegetables Category:Apiaceae ja:パースニップ

Fennel

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) is the most important species in the genus Foeniculum (treated as the sole species by many botanists), and is native to southern Europe (especially by the Mediterranean) and southwestern Asia. It is a highly aromatic perennial herb, erect, glaucous green, and grows to 2 m tall. The leaves grow up to 40 cm long; they are finely dissected, with the ultimate segments filiform, about 0.5 mm wide. The flowers are produced in terminal compound umbels 5-15 cm wide, each umbel section with 20-50 tiny yellow flowers on short pedicels. The fruit is a dry seed from 4-9 mm long, half as wide or less, and grooved. Fennel is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Mouse Moth.

Cultivation and uses

Fennel is widely cultivated both in and outside of its native range for its edible, strongly flavoured leaves and seeds. Mouse Moth The Florence fennel (Cultivar Group F. vulgare Azoricum Group) is a selection with inflated leaf bases which form a sort of bulb. It comes mainly from India and Egypt and it has an anise-like flavor, but is more aromatic and sweeter. Its flavour comes from anethole, an aromatic compound that also flavors anise and star anise. Florence fennel is smaller than the wild type and has inflated leaf bases which are eaten as a vegetable, both raw and cooked. There are several cultivars of Florence fennel, which is also known by several other names, notably finocchio. Fennel has become naturalised along roadsides, in pastures, and other open sites in many regions, including northern Europe, the United States, southern Canada and in much of Asia and Australia. It is propagated by seed, and is considered to be a weed in Australia and the US.

Cookery

Australia Both the foliage and seeds of the fennel plant have secure places in the culinary traditions of the world. Dried fennel seed is an aromatic, anise-flavored spice; brown or green in color, they slowly turn a dull grey as the seed ages (for cooking, green seeds are optimal). Fennel seeds are sometimes confused with aniseed, which is very similar in taste and appearance, though smaller. Indians often chew fennel seed (or saunf) as a mouth-freshener. Fennel is also used as a flavoring in some natural toothpastes. Some people employ it as a diuretic, while others use it to improve the milk supply of breastfeeding mothers. Many cultures in the Indian subcontinent and the Middle East incorporate fennel seed into their culinary traditions. It is an essential ingredient in the Bengali spice mixture Panch phoron and in Chinese five spice powders. It is known as saunf or moti saunf in Urdu, mouri in Bengali, and shombu in the Tamil language. Many egg, fish, and other dishes employ fresh or dried fennel leaves. Florence fennel is a key ingredient in some Italian and German salads, often tossed with chicory and avocado. One may also blanch and/or marinate the leaves, or cook them in risotto. In all cases, the herbaceous leaves lend their characteristicly-mild, anise-like flavor.

History

Etymologically, the word fennel developed from Middle English fenel, fenyl; Anglo-Saxon fenol, finol, from Latin feniculum, fœniculum, diminutive of fenum, fœnum, "hay". In Ancient Greek fennel was called marathron. This is the origin of the placename Marathon (meaning place of fennel), site of the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. In medieval times fennel was used in conjunction with St Johns Wort to keep away witchcraft and other evil things. This might have originated because fennel can be used as an insect repellant. It was also the herb hung around the neck during burning at the stake for the crime of homosexual activity, and consequently has become Italian slang for gay (in the italian form of the word fennel - finocchio). Fennel is thought to be one of the nine herbs held sacred by the Anglo-saxons. The others are still not totally certain but they seem to be mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris), greater plantain (Plantago major), watercress (Nastrurtium officinale), wild chamomile (Matricaria recutita), stinging nettle (Urtica dioica), crab apple (Pyrus malus), chervil (Anthriscus cerefolium), and viper's bugloss (Echium vulgare). The final one still remains a mystery.

External links

- [http://www.selfsufficientish.com/fennel.htm Fennel Foeniculm vulgare - History, Organic growing advice, companion planting, container growing, Medicinal and culinary uses]
- [http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Foeniculum+vulgare+azoricum Florence fennel]: Plants For a Future database
- [http://growingtaste.com/vegetables/ffennel.shtml Florence fennel for home gardeners]
- [http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Foen_vul.html?noframes Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) - Katzer's Spice Pages] Category:Apiaceae Category:Leaf vegetables Category:Spices ja:フェンネル th:ยี่หร่า

Parsley

- P. crispum
- P. neapolitanum Parsley (Petroselinum crispum) is a bright green, biennial herb that is very common in Middle Eastern, European, and American cooking. It is used for its leaf in much the same way as coriander, although it has a milder flavor. Two forms of parsley are used as herbs: curly leaf and Italian or flat leaf. Curly leaf parsley is often used as a garnish. Many people think flat leaf parsley has a stronger flavor, and this opinion is backed by chemical analysis which finds much higher levels of essential oil in the flat-leaved cultivars. One of the compounds of the essential oil is apiol. Another type of parsley is grown as a root vegetable. Parsley is used as a food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Mouse Moth and The Nutmeg. In parts of Europe, and particularly in West Asia, many foods are served with chopped parsley sprinkled on top. The fresh flavor of parsley goes extremely well with fish. Parsley is essential to several West Asian salads, e.g., tabbouleh which is the national dish of Lebanon. In Southern and Central Europe, parsley is part of bouquet garni, a bundle of fresh herbs used to flavor stocks, soups and sauces. Parsley's value as a breath-freshener come from its high concentration of chlorophyll. Adam Blackman, a nutritionist, claims Parsley enhances mental alertness, and affects the immune system.

Cultivation

Parsley grows very well in a deep thin pot on a sunny windowsill along with a lot of water.

Medicinal Uses

Parsley tea is good for kidney problems, painful urination, and kidney stones. Chinese and German herbologists recommend parsley tea to help control high blood pressure, and Cherokee Indians use it as a tonic to strengthen the bladder. It is also often used as an emmenagogue.

External links

- [http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Petr_cri.html Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages] emmenagogue emmenagogue Category:Apiaceae Category:Herbs Category:Leaf vegetables Category:Root vegetables Category:Lebanese cuisine ja:パセリ

Parsnip

Cultivation

Danger

When picking wild vegetables, poison hemlock (Conium maculatum) can easily be mistaken for parsnip, with deadly results.

External links

- [http://dmoz.org/Home/Cooking/Fruits_and_Vegetables/Parsnips/ Recipes with parsnips]

References

- Dr D.G.Hessayon (2003)"The Vegetable & Herb Expert". Expert Books. ISBN 0-903-50546-0 Category:Root vegetables Category:Apiaceae ja:パースニップ

Coniine

Coniine or (S)-2-propylpiperidine, C₈H₁₇N, is a poisonous alkaloid found in poison hemlock and the Yellow Pitcher Plant, and contributes to hemlock's fetid smell. It is a neurotoxin which disrupts the central nervous system. It is toxic to all classes of livestock and humans; less than 0.2g (0.007oz) is fatal to humans, with death caused by respiratory paralysis. Socrates was put to death by way of this poison in 399 BC. Coniine paralyzes muscles in the same fashion as curare. Symptoms of paralysis occur within a half hour, and death may take several hours. There have been a number of cases of poisoning in certain regions of Italy due to the consumption of larks and chaffinches, which eat the buds of poison hemlock during April and May. Also, the alkaloid appears to have an addictive effect: goats, cows, and pigs have all shown a preference for conium-containing forage (up to the point of eventual death) if they survive initial exposure.

History

Coniine was the first of the alkaloids ever synthesised (by Albert Ladenburg in 1886).

Synthesis

center The original synthesis of this piperidine by Ladenburg started by heating methylpyridinium iodide at 300°C (not shown)to obtain 2-methyl pyridine. 2-methyl pyridine (alpha-Picoline) reacts with Acetaldehyde in presence of a base to 2-Propenylpyridine in a Knoevenagel condensation. This intermediate was reduced with metallic sodium in ethanol to racemic (+-) Coniine (reduction by hydrogen gas is also possible). Enantiopure Coniine was obtained by fractional crystallisation of the diastereoisomers of the salt obtained with (+)-tartaric acid.

External links

- [http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/hemlock/intro.htm Information on hemlock] from the University of Bristol Category:Nitrogen heterocycles Category:Alkaloids ja:コニイン

Neurotoxin

A neurotoxin is a toxin that acts specifically on nerve cells – neurons – usually by interacting with membrane proteins and ion channels. Many of the venoms and other toxins that organisms use in defense against vertebrates are neurotoxins. A common effect is paralysis, which sets in extremely rapidly. Examples of neurotoxins include tetrodotoxin, batrachotoxin and components of the venom in bees, scorpions and spiders. Toxins taken in from the environment are described as exogenous and include gases (eg carbon monoxide), metals (such as mercury), liquids (ethanol) and an endless list of solids. When exogenous toxins are taken in, the effect on neurons is largely dependent on dosage. Thus ethanol (alcohol) is inebriating in low doses, only producing mild neurotoxicity. Prolonged exposure to "safe" alcohol levels slowly weakens and kills neurons. Neurotoxicity also occurs from substances produced within the body - endogenous neurotoxins. A prime example of a neurotoxin in the brain is glutamate, which is paradoxically also a primary neurotransmitter. When the glutamate concentration around a neuron reaches a critical point the neuron kills itself by a process called apoptosis. This whole process is called excitotoxicity, so named because glutamate normally acts as an excitatory neurotransmitter at lower levels. A potent neurotoxin such as batrachotoxin affects the nervous system by causing depolarization of nerve and muscle fibres due to increased sodium ion permeability of the excitable cell membrane.

Central nervous system

The central nervous system (CNS) represents the largest part of the nervous system. Together with the peripheral nervous system, it has a fundamental role in the control of behavior. Since the strong theoretical influence of cybernetics in the fifties, the CNS is conceived as a system devoted to information processing, where an appropriate motor output is computed as a response to a sensory input. Yet, many threads of research suggest that motor activity exists well before the maturation of the sensory systems and then, that the senses only influence behaviour without dictating it. This has brought the conception of the CNS as an autonomous system. The whole CNS originates from the neural plate, a specialised region of the ectoderm, the most external of the three embryonic layers. During embryonic development, the neural plate folds and forms the neural tube. The internal cavity of the neural tube will give rise to the ventricular system. The regions of the neural tube will differentiate progressively into transversal systems. First, the whole neural tube will differentiate into its two major subdivisions: spinal cord (caudal) and brain (rostral). Consecutively, the brain will differentiate into brainstem and prosencephalon. Later, the brainstem will subdivide into rhombencephalon and mesencephalon, and the prosencephalon into diencephalon and telencephalon. In the adult, the CNS is covered by the meninges, the brain is protected by the skull and the spinal cord by the vertebrae. The rhombencephalon gives rise to the pons, the cerebellum and the medulla oblongata, its cavity becomes the fourth ventricle. The mesencephalon gives rise to the tectum, pretectum, cerebral peduncle and its cavity develops into the mesencephalic duct or cerebral aqueduct. The diencephalon gives rise to the subthalamus, hypothalamus, thalamus and epithalamus, its cavity to the third ventricle. Finally, the telencephalon gives rise to the striatum (caudate nucleus and putamen), the hippocampus and the neocortex, its cavity becomes the lateral (first and second) ventricles. The basic pattern of the CNS is highly conserved throughout the different species of vertebrates and during evolution. The major trend that can be observed is towards a progressive telencephalisation: while in the reptilian brain that region is only an appendix to the large olfactory bulb, it represent most of the volume of the mammalian CNS. In the human brain, the telencephalon covers most of the diencephalon and the mesencephalon. Indeed, the allometric study of brain size among different species shows a striking continuity from rats to whales, and allows us to complete the knowledge about the evolution of the CNS obtained through cranial endocasts.

Parts of the CNS

Spinal Cord
Brain	Brainstem	Rhombencephalon	Pons, Cerebellum, Medulla oblongata
		Mesencephalon	Tectum, Cerebral peduncle, Pretectum, Mesencephalic duct
	Prosencephalon	Diencephalon	Epithalamus, Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Subthalamus, Pituitary Gland, Pineal Gland, Third ventricle
		Telencephalon	Basal ganglia, Rhinencephalon, Amygdala, Hippocampus, Neocortex, Lateral ventricles

External links

- [http://www.sylvius.com Sylvius: 400+ structure neuroanatomical visual glossary; used by over half of U.S. medical schools]
- [http://primate-brain.org High-Resolution Cytoarchitectural Primate Brain Atlases]
- [http://www.marymt.edu/~psychol/brain.html Human Brains: A Learning Tool].
- [http://www.humannervoussystem.info Explaining the human nervous system].
- [http://www.backrack.co.uk/nervous_index.shtml Nervous System - Back Pain - Anatomy (info on nerve pairs)].
- Category:Nervous system

Asia

Asia is the central and eastern part of Eurasia, and the world's largest continent. Defined by subtracting Europe from Eurasia, Asia is either regarded as a landmass of its own, or as part of Eurasia. The demarcation between Asia and Africa is the isthmus of Suez (although the Sinai Peninsula, being a part of Egypt east of the canal, is often geopolitically considered a part of Africa). The boundary between Asia and Europe runs via the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmara, the Bosporus, to the Black Sea, the Caucasus Mountains, the Caspian Sea, the Ural River to its source, and the Ural Mountains to the Kara Sea at Kara, Russia. About 60 percent of the world's human population lives in Asia. Asia as a political division consists of the eastern part of Eurasia and nearby islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, often excluding Russia. Pacific Ocean

Etymology

The word Asia entered English, via Latin, from Ancient Greek Ασία (Asia; see also List of traditional Greek place names). This name is first attested in Herodotus (c. 440 BC), where it refers to Asia Minor; or, for the purposes of describing the Persian Wars, to the Persian Empire, as opposed to Greece and Egypt. Even before Herodotus, Homer knew of a Trojan ally named Asios, son of Hyrtacus, a ruler over several towns, and elsewhere he describes a marsh as ασιος (Iliad 2, 461). The Greek term may be derived from from Assuwa, a 14th century BC confederation of states in Western Anatolia. Hittite assu- "good" is probably an element in that name. Alternatively, the ultimate etymology of the term may be from the Akkadian word (w)aṣû(m), cognate of Hebrew יצא, which means "to go out", referring to the direction of the sun at sunset in the Middle East. This may be compared to a similar etymology proposed for Europe, as being from Semitic erēbu "to enter" or "set" (of the sun). These etymologies presuppose an originally Mesopotamian or Middle Eastern perspective, which would explain how the term "Asia" first came to be associated with Anatolia as lying west of the Semitic speaking area.

Geographical Regions

See also Geography of Asia. As already mentioned, Asia is a subregion of Eurasia. For further subdivisions based on that term, see North Eurasia and Central Eurasia. Some Asian countries stretch beyond Asia. See Bicontinental country for details about the borderline cases between Asia and Europe, Asia and Africa and Asia and Oceania. Asia itself is often divided in the following subregions:
- North Asia
- Central Asia
- East Asia (or Far East)
- Southeast Asia
- South Asia (or Indian Subcontinent)
- Southwest Asia (or West Asia)

North Asia

This term is rarely used by geographers, but usually it refers to the bigger Asian part of Russia, also known as Siberia. Sometimes the northern parts of other Asian nations, such as Kazakhstan are also included in Northern Asia.

Central Asia

There is no absolute consensus in the usage of this term. Usually, Central Asia includes:
- the Central Asian Republics of Kazakhstan (excluding its small European territory), Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan.
- Afghanistan, Mongolia, and the western regions of China are also sometimes included.
- Former Soviet states in the Caucasus region. Central Asia is currently geopolitically important because international disputes and conflicts over oil pipelines, Nagorno-Karabakh, and Chechnya, as well as the presence of U.S. military forces in Afghanistan.

East Asia (or Far East)

This area includes:
- The Pacific Ocean islands of Taiwan and Japan.
- North and South Korea on the Korean Peninsula.
- China, but sometimes only the eastern regions Sometimes the nations of Mongolia and Vietnam are also included in East Asia. More informally, Southeast Asia is included in East Asia on some occasions.

Southeast Asia

This region contains the Malay Peninsula, Indochina and islands in the Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean. The countries it contains are:
- In mainland Southeast Asia, the countries Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam.
- In Maritime Southeast Asia, the countries of Malaysia, Brunei, the Philippines, Singapore and Indonesia (some of the Indonesian islands also lie in the Melanesia region of Oceania). East Timor (also Melanesian) is sometimes included too. The country of Malaysia is divided in two by the South China Sea, and thus has both a mainland and island part.

South Asia (or Indian Subcontinent)

South Asia is also referred to as the Indian Subcontinent. It includes:
- the Himalayan States of India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh.
- the Indian Ocean nations of Sri Lanka and the Maldives.

Southwest Asia (or West Asia)

This can also be called by the Western term Middle East, which is commonly used by Europeans and Americans. Middle East (to some interpretations) is often used to also refer to some countries in North Africa. Southwest Asia can be further divided into:
- Anatolia (i.e. Asia Minor), constituting the Asian part of Turkey.
- The island nation of Cyprus in the Mediterranean Sea.
- The Levant or Near East, which includes Syria, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Iraq and the Asian portion of Egypt.
- The Arabian peninsula, including Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, Yemen and occasionally Kuwait.
- The Caucasus region, including Armenia, a tiny portion of Russia and almost the whole of Georgia and Azerbaijan.
- The Iranian Plateau, containing Iran and parts of other nations. Also see Gulf States, for a different grouping involving several of the above countries.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Asia In terms of gross domestic product (PPP), Asia's largest economy wholly within Asia is that of the PRC (People's Republic of China), however the economy of the E.U. (European Union), one state of which (Cyprus) lies within Asia, is the largest in the world. The E.U.'s status as a supranational union, rather than a sovereign state, makes the claim questionable, especially since, when considered alone, the economy of Cyprus is one of the smallest in both the E.U. and Asia, and not many times larger than that of East Timor, the Asian state with the smallest economy (although as of 2005 there is no reliable data for either Iraq or North Korea). Over the last decade, China's and India's economies have been growing rapidly, both with an average annual growth rate over 6%. PRC is the world's third largest economy after the E.U. and U.S.A., followed by Japan and India as the world's fourth and fifth largest economies respectively (then followed by the European nations: Germany, U.K., France and Italy). In terms of exchange rates however, Japan has the largest economy in Asia and the third largest in the world. Trade blocs:
- Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
- Association of Southeast Asian Nations
- Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement
- Commonwealth of Independent States
- South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
- South Asia Free Trade Agreement (proposed)

Natural resources

Asia is by a considerable margin the largest continent in the world, and is rich in natural resources, such as Petroleum and iron. High productivity in agriculture, especially of rice, allows high population density of countries in the warm and humid area. Other main agricultural products include wheat and chicken. Forestry is extensive throughout Asia except Southwest and Central Asia. Fishing is a major source of food in Asia, particularly in Japan.

Manufacturing

Manufacturing in Asia has traditionally been strongest in East and Southeast Asia, particularly in PRC, Taiwan, Japan, South Korea and Singapore. The industry varies from manufacturing cheap goods such as toys to high-tech goods such as computers and cars. Many companies from Europe, North America, and Japan have significant operations in the developing Asia to take avantage of its abundant supply of cheap labor. One of the major employers in manufacturing in Asia is the textile industry. Much of the world's supply of clothing and footwear now originates in Southeast Asia.

Financial and other services

Asia has three main financial centers. They are in Hong Kong, Singapore and Tokyo. Call centers are becoming major employers in India, due to the availablity of many well-educated English speakers. The rise of the business process outsourcing industry has seen the rise of India and China as the other financial centers.

Early history

Main article: History of Asia The history of Asia can be seen as the distinct histories of several peripheral coastal regions, East Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East, linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe. The coastal periphery was home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations, with each of the three regions developing early civilizations around fertile river valleys. The civilizations in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and the Yangtze shared many similarities and likely exchanged technologies and ideas such as mathematics and the wheel. Other notions such as that of writing likely developed individually in each area. Cities, states and empires developed in these lowlands. The steppe region had long been inhabited by mounted nomads, and from the central steppes they could reach all areas of Asia. The earliest known such central expansion out of the steppe is that of the Indo-Europeans, who spread their languages into the Middle East, India, and in the Tocharians to the borders of China. The northern part of Asia, covering much of Siberia, was inaccessible to the steppe nomads, due to the dense forests and the tundra. These areas were very sparsely populated. The centre and periphery were kept separate by mountains and deserts. The Caucasus, Himalaya, Karakum Desert and Gobi Desert formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could only cross with difficulty. While technologically and culturally, the urban city dwellers were more advanced, they could do little militarily to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe. However, the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force. Thus the nomads who conquered states in China, India, and the Middle East were soon forced to adapt to the local societies.

Population density

The following table lists countries and dependencies by population density in inhabitants and km². Unlike the figures in the country articles, the figures in this table are based on areas including inland water bodies (lakes, reservoirs, rivers) and may therefore be lower here. The whole of Egypt, Russia, Kazakhstan, Georgia, Azerbaijan and Turkey are referred to in the table, although they are only partly in Asia.

Religion

A large majority of the people in the world who practice a religious faith practice one which was founded in Asia. Religions founded in Asia and with a majority of their contemporary adherents in Asia include:
- Bahá'í Faith (slightly more than half of all adherents are in Asia)
- Buddhism (Japan,Sri Lanka, Korea, Singapore, China, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, Malaysia, India)
- Hinduism (India, Singapore, Malaysia, Nepal, Bali)
- Islam (Central, South, and Southwest Asia, Malaysia, Brunei and Indonesia)
- Jainism (India)
- Shinto (Japan)
- Sikhism(India, Malaysia, Hong kong)
- Taoism (China, Vietnam, Singapore, and Taiwan)
- Zoroastrianism (Iran, India, Pakistan) Religions founded in Asia that have the majority of their contemporary adherents in other regions include:
- Christianity (South Korea, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, East Timor, India and the Philippines)
- Judaism (slightly fewer than half of its adherents reside in Asia)

References

External links

- http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/asia.html
- http://www.freeworldmaps.net/asia/index.html
- [http://www.alloexpat.com AlloExpat - Asia Information & Forums]
- [http://www.asiaexpat.info Asia Expat Forum - Discuss this region with expatriates] Category:Continents zh-min-nan:A-chiu ko:아시아 ms:Asia ja:アジア simple:Asia th:ทวีปเอเชีย

North America

North America is a continent in the northern hemisphere bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the North Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Caribbean Sea, and on the west by the North Pacific Ocean. It covers an area of 24,497,994 km² (9,458,728 sq mi), or about 4.8% of the Earth's surface. As of July 2002, its population was estimated at more than 514,600,000. It is the third largest continent in area, after Asia and Africa, and is fourth in population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. Both North and South America are named after Amerigo Vespucci, who was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a previously undiscovered (by Europeans) New World. North America occupies the northern portion of the landmass generally referred to as the New World, the Western Hemisphere, the Americas, or simply America. North America's only land connection is to South America at the narrow Isthmus of Panama. (For geopolitical reasons, all of Panama – including the segment east of the Panama Canal in the isthmus – is often considered a part of North America alone.) According to some authorities, North America begins not at the Isthmus of Panama but at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, with the intervening region called Central America and resting on the Caribbean Plate. Most, however, tend to see Central America as a region of North America, considering it too small to be a continent on its own. Greenland, although a part of North America geographically, is not considered to be part of the continent politically.

Physical features

Greenland, plutonic, metamorphic rock types of North America. ]] Plate tectonics recognizes the vast majority of North America as being the surface of the North American Plate. Parts of California and western Mexico are known for being the edge of the Pacific Plate, with the two plates meeting along the San Andreas fault. The continent can be divided into four great regions (each of which contains many sub-regions): the Great Plains stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to the Canadian Arctic; the geologically young, mountainous west, including the Rocky Mountains, the Great Basin, California and Alaska; the raised but relatively flat plateau of the Canadian Shield in the northeast; and the varied eastern region, which includes the Appalachian Mountains, the coastal plain along the Atlantic seaboard, and the Florida peninsula. Mexico, with its long plateaus and cordilleras, falls largely in the western region, although the eastern coastal plain does extend south along the Gulf. The western mountains are split in the middle, into the main range of the Rockies and the coast ranges in California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia with the Great Basin – a lower area containing smaller ranges and low-lying deserts – in between. The highest peak is Denali in Alaska. Since 1931, Rugby, North Dakota, has officially been recognized as being at the geographic center of North America. The location is marked by a 4.5 metre (15 foot) field stone obelisk. Image:North america terrain 2003 map.jpg|North America bedrock and terrain. Image:North america basement rocks.png|North American cratons and basement rocks. Image:North America Tectonic Elements.jpg|Tectonic elements of North America Image:North america craton nps.gif|North American craton.

Territories and regions

craton On the main continent landmass, there are three large and relatively populous countries:
- Canada - many large islands off the shore of North America belong to Canada, including Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Islands on the west, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland and Cape Breton Island on the east, and the Canadian Arctic islands (including Ellesmere Island, Baffin Island, and Victoria Island) in the north
- Mexico - the Revillagigedo archipelago and numerous smaller islands off its coast belong to Mexico
- The United States - the 48 contiguous states and Alaska are part of North America, while the state of Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean is not; the Aleutian Islands south of Alaska also belong to the U.S. At the southern end of the continent, in a relatively small area known as Central America, are the countries of:
- Belize
- Costa Rica
- El Salvador
- Guatemala
- Honduras
- Nicaragua
- Panama ¹ At the southeastern end of the continent lies a chain of islands territories called the Antilles, the Caribbean or the West Indies, which include the countries:
- Antigua and Barbuda
- Bahamas
- Barbados
- Cuba
- Dominica
- Dominican Republic
- Grenada
- Haiti
- Jamaica
- Saint Kitts and Nevis
- Saint Lucia
- Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
- Trinidad and Tobago ¹ And the dependencies:
- Anguilla (British overseas territory)
- Aruba ² (part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands)
- Cayman Islands (British overseas territory)
- Guadeloupe (French région d'outre-mer)
- Martinique (French région d'outre-mer)
- Montserrat (British overseas territory)
- Navassa Island (U.S. territory)
- Netherlands Antilles ¹ (part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands)
- Puerto Rico (U.S. commonwealth)
- Turks and Caicos Islands (British overseas territory)
- British Virgin Islands (British overseas territory)
- U.S. Virgin Islands (territory of the USA) Lying in the Atlantic Ocean but considered part of the continent are the dependencies:
- Bermuda, a British overseas territory found about 1,072 km (670 mi.) southeast of New York City
- Greenland, the largest island in the world and a self-governing dependency of Denmark, which is located in the far north of the continent to the east of Nunavut.
- Saint Pierre and Miquelon, a French collectivité d'outre-mer off the south coast of Newfoundland, is the last of France's once vast possessions in America north of the Caribbean. ¹ These states and dependencies have territory both in North and South America.
² These dependencies lie in South America, but are considered North American because of cultural and historical reasons.
See here for details.

Usage

The United States, Canada, and the other English-speaking nations of the Americas (Belize, Guyana, and the Anglophone Caribbean) are sometimes grouped under the term Anglo-America, while the remaining nations of North and South America are grouped under the term Latin America. Alternatively, Northern America is used to refer to Canada and the U.S. together (plus Greenland and Bermuda), while Central America is mainland North America south of the United States. The West Indies generally include all islands in the Caribbean Sea. In this respect, Latin America generally includes Central America and South America and, sometimes, the West Indies. The term Middle America is sometimes used to refer to Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean collectively. The term "North America" may mean different things to different people. The term in common usage is often taken to mean "the United States and Canada, only" by some people of the United States and Canada, excluding Mexico and the countries of Central America, unless the context makes it clear that they are to be included (such as with specific reference to Mexico, when talking about NAFTA). For example, guides to wild flora and fauna published by the National Audubon Society for "North America" frequently include only species found in Canada and the U.S. This may be attributed to the fact that culturally and economically, the U.S. and Canada are more alike to each other than they are to the rest of North America. Mexicans, however, are acutely aware that Mexico is a part of North America and object to this usage. Central Americans, however, are generally content to be called Central Americans – largely because of their shared history, which includes several attempts at supranational integration in the region and in which Mexico, their much larger northern neighbor, was never involved.

Political divisions and regions

Notes:
¹ Continental regions as per UN categorisations/map.
² Depending on definitions, Aruba, Netherlands Antilles, Panama, and Trinidad and Tobago have territory in one or both of North and South America.
³ Due to ongoing activity of the Soufriere Hills volcano beginning 1995, much of Plymouth, Montserrat's de jure capital, was destroyed and government offices relocated to Brades.

External links

- http://www.america-norte.com/america-norte-mapa.htm Category:Continents Category:North America zh-min-nan:Pak Bí-chiu ko:북아메리카 ja:北アメリカ simple:North America th:ทวีปอเมริกาเหนือ